First is raw efficiency, which may require centralized rule in the hands of the competent few. Confucius (551479 BCE) appeared in this period of political decadence and spiritual questioning. [86] In 2003, the Confucian intellectual Kang Xiaoguang published a manifesto in which he made four suggestions: Confucian education should enter official education at any level, from elementary to high school; the state should establish Confucianism as the state religion by law; Confucian religion should enter the daily life of ordinary people through standardisation and development of doctrines, rituals, organisations, churches and activity sites; the Confucian religion should be spread through non-governmental organisations. Spotlight on Other Religions The "other religions" category is diverse and comprises all groups not classified elsewhere. This line of thought would have influenced all Chinese individual and collective-political mystical theories and practices thereafter. said the share of the world's population living in autocracies had risen from . Should the ruler be surrounded by xiaoren as opposed to junzi, his governance and his people will suffer due to their small-mindness. Confucianism and Daoism In the 5th century BCE, China was thrown into a period of intense warfare among rival states. [141] During the Han dynasty period, the influential Confucian text Lessons for Women (Njie), was written by Ban Zhao (45114CE) to instruct her daughters how to be proper Confucian wives and mothers, that is, to be silent, hard-working, and compliant. Li is variously translated as "rite" or "reason", "ratio" in the pure sense of Vedic ta ("right", "order") when referring to the cosmic law, but when referring to its realisation in the context of human social behaviour it has also been translated as "customs", "measures" and "rules", among other terms. As a conservative philosophy of life, Confucianism prioritized stability over productivity, forming tightly-knit clans with supportive norms to make intra-clan resource pooling and risk sharing credible. Lord on High may have referred to the ancestral progenitor of the Shang royal lineage, but heaven to the Zhou kings, although also ancestral, was a more-generalized anthropomorphic god. By 2040, 28.1% of the Chinese population will be over 60, compared to 12.4% in 2010, according to the UN. In other words, at a minimum, democracy needs Confucian meritocratic checks. A key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one must first govern oneself according to the universal order. Confucianism is a philosophy developed by Master Kong (known more commonly as Confucius) during China's Zhou Dynasty (1045 - 253 BC). Please select which sections you would like to print: Professor of Chinese History and Philosophy, Harvard University. [4], With particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony, rather than on an otherworldly source of spiritual values,[5] the core of Confucianism is humanistic. [9] While Tin has some characteristics that overlap the category of godhead, it is primarily an impersonal absolute principle and not considered a true deity by most scholars[10] and practitioners, like the Do () or the Brahman,[further explanation needed] and gods worshiped by Confucians do not originate from orthodox Confucianism. Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality. In every case, Confucian meritocrats draw on China's extensive history of meritocratic administration to outline the pros and cons of competing methods of selection. The Taiping Rebellion described Confucianism sages as well as gods in Taoism and Buddhism as devils. Later, Zhu Xi defined junzi as second only to the sage. This practice is defined as "centring" ( yng or zhng). A conceptual framework". During the Han dynasty (206BCE 220CE), Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist" HuangLao as the official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism.[4]. It is the virtue-form of Heaven. Confuciuss hero was Zhougong, or the duke of Zhou (fl. Confucianism is a philosophy developed in 6th-century BCE China, which is considered by some a secular-humanist belief system, by some a religion, and by others a social code. [129], Translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period,[130] particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded. [citation needed] Modern Confucianism is the descendant of movements that greatly changed how they practiced the teachings of Confucius and his disciples from previous orthodox teachings. [101], . In the Chinese language, the character r meaning "scholar" or "learned" or "refined man" is generally used both in the past and the present to refer to things related to Confucianism. Meanwhile, Islam promotes the unity of Muslims regardless of ethnicity or familial ties, creating an environment of extremely extroverted people. In this set of flashcards, you will learn about the long and fascinating history of one Asia's most major religions: Confucianism. [95][96] It was the first of a nationwide movement of congregations and civil organisations that was unified in 2015 in the Church of Confucius ( Kngshnghu). [31], According to the scholar Stephan Feuchtwang, in Chinese cosmology, which is not merely Confucian but shared by all Chinese religions, "the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy" (hundun and qi ), organising through the polarity of yin and yang which characterises any thing and life. Confucius. ), and one of representatives elected by the people. Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by Mencius (c. 372-289 BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving the principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core. What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect." The aim of this study is to analyze the influence of Confucianism on health behaviors, health outcomes and medical decisions. Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. The superior man [Junzi] cannot care about the everything, just as he cannot go to check all himself! Competition is often used as a means to advance the status of the clan. Religious Landscape Study. Confucianism advocates for the atomization of society through clans. Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism,[1] is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or a way of life. Two of the most influential of these philosophies were Confucianism and Daoism. It is postulated that certain elements of Leibniz's philosophy, such as "simple substance" and "Pre-established harmony", were borrowed from his interactions with Confucianism. [141], For years, many modern scholars have regarded Confucianism as a sexist, patriarchal ideology that was historically damaging to Chinese women. Besides the waning Zhou ritual system, what may be defined as "wild" ( y) traditions, or traditions "outside of the official system", developed as attempts to access the will of Tian. [139][140], Confucianism "largely defined the mainstream discourse on gender in China from the Han dynasty onward. In later dynasties, a number of women took advantage of the Confucian acknowledgment of education to become independent in thought. as implying that even though Tian is not a "speaking person", it constantly "does" through the rhythms of nature, and communicates "how human beings ought to live and act", at least to those who have learnt to carefully listen to it. [30] This transformation of the self may be extended to the family and society to create a harmonious fiduciary community. The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that tin was not to be interpreted as a personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator. In 8.19, he says that the lives of the sages are interwoven with Tin. For example, the impact of the Vietnam War on Vietnam was devastating, but over the last few decades Vietnam has been re-developing in a very fast pace. ASARB conducted its first congregations count in 1990. the public should not know how officials are selected, since ordinary people are in no position to judge officials beyond the local level. He proposed revitalizing the meaning of the past by advocating a ritualized life. Robert Eno argues that the term has been "burdened with the ambiguities and irrelevant traditional associations". This system depended on blood ties, marriage alliances, and old covenants as well as on newly negotiated contracts. The Lunyu ( Analects ), the most-revered sacred scripture in the Confucian tradition, was probably compiled by the succeeding generations of Confucius's disciples. 551-479 BCE) has been portrayed as a teacher, advisor, editor, philosopher, reformer, and prophet. [157] The Jesuits, including Matteo Ricci, saw Chinese rituals as "civil rituals" that could co-exist alongside the spiritual rituals of Catholicism. By Confuciuss time, however, the feudal ritual system had been so fundamentally undermined that the political crises also precipitated a profound sense of moral decline: the centre of symbolic control could no longer hold the kingdom, which had devolved from centuries of civil war into 14 feudal states. Confucianism, the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th-5th century bce and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia. This idea may be traced back to the ancient shamanic beliefs of the king being the axle between the sky, human beings, and the Earth. They also fought wars to enforce the belief system on others and enforce specific versions of it,[98][99] possibly some of the first in religious history done by factions who believed only a single divine being was the primary force driving the world. [116] Tongdong Bai's approach incorporates different ways to select members of the meritocratic house, from exams to performance in various fieldsbusiness, science, administration, and so on. A Confucian revival began during the Tang dynasty (618907CE). Creation is therefore a continuous ordering; it is not a creation ex nihilo. [25], Traditionally, Confucius was thought to be the author or editor of the Five Classics which were the basic texts of Confucianism. [50] Feuchtwang explains that the difference between Confucianism and Taoism primarily lies in the fact that the former focuses on the realisation of the starry order of Heaven in human society, while the latter on the contemplation of the Dao which spontaneously arises in nature. This "cult of chastity" accordingly condemned many widows to poverty and loneliness by placing a social stigma on remarriage. [14], Yn Hu, Confucius's most outstanding student, once asked his master to describe the rules of rn and Confucius replied, "one should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper. Confucius may have initiated a cultural process known in the West as Confucianism, but he and those who followed him considered themselves part of a tradition, later identified by Chinese historians as the rujia, scholarly tradition, that had its origins two millennia previously, when the legendary sages Yao and Shun created a civilized world through moral persuasion. Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue in a morally organised world. How many Confucianism followers are there worldwide? At the national level, Bai proposes two chambers: one of meritocrats (selected by examination, by examination and promotion, from leaders in certain professional fields, etc. [132] He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying the sociopolitical hierarchy of China as a model for Europe.[132]. So, in light of Xi's call for Confucianism to benefit society in concrete ways, private . Grades 5 - 8 Subjects Religion, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations Image Confucian Philosopher Mencius Analects. [118] Because they believe that promotion should depend upon peer evaluations only, Bell and Wang argue against transparencyi.e. John C. Didier and David Pankenier relate the shapes of both the ancient Chinese characters for Di and Tian to the patterns of stars in the northern skies, either drawn, in Didier's theory by connecting the constellations bracketing the north celestial pole as a square,[77] or in Pankenier's theory by connecting some of the stars which form the constellations of the Big Dipper and broader Ursa Major, and Ursa Minor (Little Dipper). To Confucius, the junzi sustained the functions of government and social stratification through his ethical values. Being well received by the population, even Confucian preachers have appeared on television since 2006. The works of Confucius were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit missionaries stationed in China. Confucianism is concerned with finding "middle ways" between yin and yang at every new configuration of the world. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority. These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in the past. [104], Confucian political meritocracy is not merely a historical phenomenon. It is considered the essence of the human being, endowed by Heaven, and at the same time the means by which man may act according to the principle of Heaven (, Tin l) and become one with it. [86] The most enthusiastic New Confucians proclaim the uniqueness and superiority of Confucian Chinese culture, and have generated some popular sentiment against Western cultural influences in China. It remains the social code of the Chinese and continues to influence other countries particularly Korea Japan and Vietnam. While Jiang's model is closer to an ideal theory than Bell's proposals, it represents a more traditionalist alternative. First published Tue Mar 31, 2020. Xunzi cites "songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation rice and millet, fish and meat the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches" as vital parts of the fabric of li. [152][153], Further analysis suggests, however, that women's place in Confucian society may be more complex. [123], Other Confucians have criticized Confucian meritocrats like Bell for their rejection of democracy. Nonetheless, it spread to other East Asian countries under the influence of Chinese literate culture and has exerted a profound influence on spiritual and political life. The abolition of the examination system in 1905 marked the end of official Confucianism. [144][145] It has also been argued by some Chinese and Western writers that the rise of neo-Confucianism during the Song dynasty had led to a decline of status of women. As a whole, this group is expected to grow from about 58 million in 2010 to more than 61 million in 2050. The Zhou belief in the mandate of heaven (the functional equivalent of the will of the Lord on High) differed from the divine right of kings in that there was no guarantee that the descendants of the Zhou royal house would be entrusted with kingship, for, as written in the Shujing (Classic of History), heaven sees as the people see [and] hears as the people hear; thus, the virtues of the kings were essential for the maintenance of their power and authority. That Confucius admitted students of different classes as disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures that defined pre-imperial Chinese society. Social harmony results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the natural order, and playing his or her part well. The junzi enforces his rule over his subjects by acting virtuously himself. . [83] In his view, the power of Tian is immanent, and responds positively to the sincere heart driven by humaneness and rightness, decency and altruism. The petty person is egotistic and does not consider the consequences of his action in the overall scheme of things. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers.[68]. Some of the basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices include rn, y, and l, and zh. [6] According to American philosopher Herbert Fingarette's conceptualisation of Confucianism as a philosophical system which regards "the secular as sacred",[7] Confucianism transcends the dichotomy between religion and humanism, considering the ordinary activities of human lifeand especially human relationshipsas a manifestation of the sacred,[8] because they are the expression of humanity's moral nature (xng ), which has a transcendent anchorage in Heaven (Tin ). They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. For example, South Korean writer Kim Kyong-il wrote an essay[when?] [25], Philosophers in the Warring States period, both "inside the square" (focused on state-endorsed ritual) and "outside the square" (non-aligned to state ritual) built upon Confucius's legacy, compiled in the Analects, and formulated the classical metaphysics that became the lash of Confucianism. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. An estimated 5 to 6 million people follow Confucianism worldwide. Tongdong Bai presents an in-between solution by proposing a two-tiered bicameral system. Some argue therefore that despite Confucius's disdain with martial culture, his teachings became of much relevance to it. [65], Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into conflict with one another. The name Confucius, a Latinized combination of the surname Kong with an honorific suffix "Master" ( fuzi ), has also come to be . According to China, its Confucius Institute is "a bridge reinforcing friendship" between it and the world. In other words, while examinations may ensure that early-career officials are competent and educated, how is it thereafter ensured that only those who rule well get promoted? The concept of heaven (tian), unique in Zhou cosmology, was compatible with that of the Lord on High (Shangdi) in the Shang dynasty. Starting in 2000, the US Religion Census began to make religious diversity a priority, trying to go beyond the major denominations to count . Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. This elaborate system of mutual dependence was based on blood ties, marriage alliances, and old covenants as well as on newly negotiated contracts. Traditionally, cultures and countries in the East Asian cultural sphere are strongly influenced by Confucianism, including China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, as well as various territories settled predominantly by Han Chinese people, such as Singapore and Myanmar's Kokang. [82] As the Zhou reign collapsed, traditional values were abandoned resulting in a period of perceived moral decline. Confucius includes in his discussions of li such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. The search process identified 833 publications matching the search criteria, and after the review . The term Confucianism is derived from Confucius, the conventional name for Master Kong, the most revered sage of this religious tradition. Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realmsHeaven, Earth and humanity. Corrections? [102] Jnz (, lit. The followers of the Buddhist religion accounts for 6% of the population. Cloud State University, that is "paused" while the university conducts a review. [112] In his account, the exams select for intellect and other virtuesfor instance, the ability to argue three different viewpoints on a contentious issue may indicate a certain degree of openness. Although Confucius never realized his political dream, his conception of politics as moral persuasion became more and more influential. [22]:190197 Several different terms, some of which with modern origin, are used in different situations to express different facets of Confucianism, including: Three of them use r. [64] The famous thinker Huang Zongxi also strongly criticised the autocratic nature of the imperial system and wanted to keep imperial power in check. [155] More recently, some scholars have also begun to discuss the viability of constructing a "Confucian feminism". Defenders of Confucian political meritocracy all champion a system in which rulers are selected on the basis of intellect, social skills, and virtue. The literature opposes those who prefer evaluation by peers to evaluation by superiors, with some thinkers including quasi-democratic selection mechanisms along the way. [12], Confucian liturgy (called r, or sometimes simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: zhngtng, meaning 'orthopraxy') led by Confucian priests or "sages of rites" (; ; lshng) to worship the gods in public and ancestral Chinese temples is preferred on certain occasions, by Confucian religious groups and for civil religious rites, over Taoist or popular ritual.[13]. As Confucius stated "a prince should employ his minister according to the rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness (loyalty)."[59]. Some South Koreans believe Confucianism has not contributed to the modernisation of South Korea. and the general population during times of peace and times of war. The broad range of subjects touched on by Confucianism lends itself to all three of these interpretations depending on which aspects one focuses on. In 7.23 Confucius says that he has no doubt left that the Tin gave him life, and from it he had developed right virtue ( d). On the contrary, the xiaoren (, xiorn, "small or petty person") does not grasp the value of virtues and seeks only immediate gains. Though Confucius is sometimes credited with founding Confucianism, he said that he was interpreting the philosophy of Zhougong, the duke of Zhou, rather than creating new doctrine. The use of the term "Confucianism" has been avoided by some modern scholars, who favor "Ruism" and "Ruists" instead. Important military and political figures in modern Chinese history continued to be influenced by Confucianism, like the Muslim warlord Ma Fuxiang. While the lower house does not have any legislative power per se, it acts as a popular accountability mechanism by championing the people and putting pressure on the upper house. [86] Another modern proponent of the institutionalisation of Confucianism in a state church is Jiang Qing. "[141] Matthew Sommers has also indicated that the Qing dynasty government began to realise the utopian nature of enforcing the "cult of chastity" and began to allow practices such as widow remarrying to stand. Rites and sacrifices to the gods have an ethical importance: they generate good life, because taking part in them leads to the overcoming of the self. This idea is developed further in the Great Learning, and is tightly linked with the Taoist concept of wu wei (; ; w wi): the less the king does, the more gets done. Similarly, the lower house allows citizens to be represented, have a voice in public affairs (albeit a weak one), and ensure accountability. This emphasis on benevolent rulership, expressed in numerous bronze inscriptions, was both a reaction to the collapse of the Shang dynasty and an affirmation of a deep-rooted worldview. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. The same is true with the husband and wife relationship where the husband needs to show benevolence towards his wife and the wife needs to respect the husband in return. The story of Confucianism does not begin with Confucius. Zhou kings declared that their victory over the Shang was because they were virtuous and loved their people, while the Shang were tyrants and thus were deprived of power by Tian.[3]. It is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children. Japanese Confucian Philosophy. As a result, this period led to the development of many new philosophies. The Song dynasty Confucian Cheng Yi stated that: "To starve to death is a small matter, but to lose one's chastity is a great matter. "Political meritocracy versus ethical democracy: The Confucian political ideal revisited". This represents 0.09% of the world's population, or slightly less than 1%. [citation needed] The emperors of China were considered agents of Heaven, endowed with the Mandate of Heaven. Based primarily on the Master's sayings, preserved in both oral and written transmissions, it captures the Confucian spirit . [149][150][151] Many traditional commentators and modern scholars have debated over the precise meaning of the passage, and whether Confucius referred to all women or just certain groups of women. Ren is fundamental to become a junzi.[70]. "[71], According to He Guanghu, Confucianism may be identified as a continuation of the Shang-Zhou (~1600256 BCE) official religion, or the Chinese aboriginal religion which has lasted uninterrupted for three thousand years. One of the most famous collections of such stories is "The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars". Like many contemporaries, Confucius saw ritual practices as efficacious ways to access Tian, but he thought that the crucial knot was the state of meditation that participants enter prior to engage in the ritual acts. In the New Culture Movement, Lu Xun criticised Confucianism for shaping Chinese people into the condition they had reached by the late Qing dynasty: his criticisms are expressed metaphorically in the work "Diary of a Madman", in which traditional Chinese Confucian society is portrayed as feudalistic, hypocritical, socially cannibalistic, despotic, fostering a "slave mentality" favouring despotism, lack of critical thinking and blind obedience and worship of authority, fuelling a form of "Confucian authoritarianism" which persists into the present day. It focuses on innate human goodness and the importance of interpersonal human relationships. [142] Starting from the Han period, Confucians began to teach that a virtuous woman was supposed to follow the males in her family: the father before her marriage, the husband after she marries, and her sons in widowhood. Confucianismincluding the most pro-authoritarian scholars such as Xunzihas always recognised the Right of revolution against tyranny.
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