The first writings on the French revolution were near contemporaneous with events and mainly divided along ideological lines. In any event, the new constitution was suspended until France was at peace. [221] In 1788, it held a dominant position within society; to be French meant to be a Catholic. On 20 April 1792 the French Revolutionary Wars began when French armies attacked Austrian and Prussian forces along their borders, before suffering a series of disastrous defeats. [77] On 27 August, Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz declaring their support for Louis, and hinting at an invasion of France on his behalf. Deprived of political rights under the Ancien Rgime, the 1791 Constitution classed them as "passive" citizens, leading to demands for social and political equality for women and an end to male domination. This led to the "Constitutional Act 1791", which split the Province into two separate colonies, each with its own electoral assembly, the predominantly French-speaking Lower Canada and predominantly English-speaking Upper Canada. Recent arguments over the use of Muslim religious symbols in schools, such as wearing headscarves, have been explicitly linked to the conflict over Catholic rituals and symbols during the Revolution. As a result, the Directory was characterised by "chronic violence, ambivalent forms of justice, and repeated recourse to heavy-handed repression. In 1781, Louis allegedly refused to appoint him Archbishop of Paris on the grounds 'an Archbishop should at least believe in God'. Camille Desmoulins asked his followers to wear green cockades on 12 July 1789. A chronology of key events in modern French history: 1789 - French Revolution ends rule of monarchy going back to 9th Century; followed by establishment of the First Republic. Martinique remained under British occupation, while colonial landowners in Runion and the les Mascareignes repulsed the republicans. Other decrees included equality before the law, opening public office to all, freedom of worship, and cancellation of special privileges held by provinces and towns. He and Jean-Paul Marat gained increasing support for opposing the criteria for 'active citizens', which had disenfranchised much of the Parisian proletariat. Both territories experienced revolutions in 1789. [191], The role of women in the Revolution has long been a topic of debate. Without a majority in the legislature, the Directors relied on the army to enforcing decrees and extract revenue from conquered territories. After the Convention passed the law in September 1793, the Revolutionary Republican Women demanded vigorous enforcement, but were countered by market women, former servants, and religious women who adamantly opposed price controls (which would drive them out of business) and resented attacks on the aristocracy and on religion. [68], The period from October 1789 to spring 1791 is usually seen as one of relative tranquility, when some of the most important legislative reforms were enacted. A new decree stated retracting this oath, making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would be considered abdication. [16] National taxes could only be approved by the Estates-General, which had not sat since 1614; its revenue functions had been assumed by regional parlements, the most powerful being the Parlement de Paris (see Map). [82] After Louis officially accepted the new Constitution, one response was recorded as being "Vive le roi, s'il est de bon foi! [104], Key areas of focus for the new government included creating a new state ideology, economic regulation and winning the war. [3] Combined with a regressive tax system and resistance to reform by the ruling elite, it resulted in a crisis Louis XVI proved unable to manage. [233][234] The conservative Catholic enemies of the Revolution came to power in Vichy France (194044), and tried with little success to undo its heritage, but they kept it a republic. While loyalties constantly shifted, around 160 of the 749 deputies were Girondists, 200 Montagnards and 389 members of La Plaine. [10] One historian concludes "neither the level of French state debt in 1788, or its previous history, can be considered an explanation for the outbreak of revolution in 1789". "[201] Many activists were punished for their actions, while some were executed for "conspiring against the unity and the indivisibility of the Republic". [224], The church was a primary target during the Terror, due to its association with "counter-revolutionary" elements, resulting in the persecution of priests and destruction of churches and religious images throughout France. [200], Madame Roland (also known as Manon or Marie Roland) was another important female activist. [143], With Royalists apparently on the verge of power, the Republicans staged a coup on 4 September. Tackett, Timothy, "The French Revolution and religion to 1794," and Suzanne Desan, "The French Revolution and religion, 17951815," in Stewart J. [253], The Constitution of Norway of 1814 was inspired by the French Revolution,[254] and was considered to be one of the most liberal and democratic constitutions at the time. For their opponents, Enlightenment ideas on equality and democracy provided an intellectual framework for dealing with these issues, while the American Revolution was seen as confirmation of their practical application. [76], The massacre badly damaged Lafayette's reputation; the authorities responded by closing radical clubs and newspapers, while their leaders went into exile or hiding, including Marat. On 10 September, the majority led by Sieys and Talleyrand rejected this in favour of a single assembly, while Louis retained only a "suspensive veto"; this meant he could delay the implementation of a law, but not block it. [258] The influx of religious migrants also reinvigorated the local Catholic Church, with exiled priests establishing a number of parishes throughout the Canadas.[258]. [41], Alarmed by the prospect of losing control of the capital, Louis appointed the Marquis de Lafayette commander of the National Guard, with Jean-Sylvain Bailly as head of a new administrative structure known as the Commune. In 1794, under the impetus of Grgoire, by a decree of 2 Thermidor Year II, the Jacobins instituted a policy aimed at the destruction of any language or dialect other than French. At the beginning of the revolution, they abolished the provinces, each of which had its own identity and which, for some of them, represented nations, establishing in their place the division into departments, which will be extended to the new conquests made during the revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. Emboldened by this, on 22 September the Convention replaced the monarchy with the French First Republic and introduced a new calendar, with 1792 becoming "Year One". [9], The other major drag on the economy was state debt. Using troops from Bonaparte's Army of Italy under Pierre Augereau, the Council of 500 was forced to approve the arrest of Barthlemy, Pichegru and Carnot. The American Revolution was very similar to the many revolutions that have gone on in many countries that are fights for independence and democracy. "[112] [b], At the height of the Terror, the slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thought could place one under suspicion, and even its supporters were not immune. [245], In Ireland, the effect was to transform what had been an attempt by Protestant settlers to gain some autonomy into a mass movement led by the Society of United Irishmen involving Catholics and Protestants. While certainly true, many provincial areas experienced conflict over the source of legitimate authority, where officers of the Ancien Rgime had been swept away, but new structures were not yet in place. [269][270] These writers were associated with "history from below" as opposed to traditional "history from above" which emphasised conflicts between the monarchy, the nobles, revolutionary political leaders and foreign powers. French Revolution | Timeline | Britannica Du Pont tried becoming a printer, but it was hard to make money, so he left for America with his family. Others like Throigne de Mricourt, Pauline Lon and the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women supported the Jacobins, staged demonstrations in the National Assembly and took part in the October 1789 March to Versailles. The current King. The French Revolution was a watershed event in world history that began in 1789 and ended in the late 1790s with the ascent of Napoleon Bonaparte. [21], By 1788, total state debt had increased to an unprecedented 4.5 billion livres. These characteristics of Jacobin ideology, which contrast with the revolutionary discourse on freedom and equality, have been highlighted by critical historians in the tradition of Tocqueville, notably by Hoel, in Jacobin Ideology. [121] The Law of 22 Prairial was repealed, any surviving Girondists reinstated as deputies, and the Jacobin Club was closed and banned. The state sold the lands but typically local authorities did not replace the funding and so most of the nation's charitable and school systems were massively disrupted[210], Between 1790 and 1796, industrial and agricultural output dropped, foreign trade plunged, and prices soared, forcing the government to finance expenditure by issuing ever increasing quantities assignats. The latter derived rank from judicial or administrative posts and tended to be hard-working professionals, who dominated the regional parlements and were often intensely socially conservative. [17], Although willing to authorise one-time taxes, these bodies were reluctant to pass long-term measures, while collection was outsourced to private individuals. One suggestion is the resulting fragmentation of agricultural holdings had a significant negative impact in the early years of 19th century, then became positive in the second half of the century because it facilitated the rise in human capital investments. On 30 September, the Constituent Assembly was dissolved, and the Legislative Assembly convened the next day. From the French Revolution to a Stable Democracy Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) Global African History - BlackPast.org [90] Louis and his family took refuge with the Assembly and shortly after 11:00 am, the deputies present voted to 'temporarily relieve the king', effectively suspending the monarchy. This is generally seen as marking the end of the Revolutionary period. [25], In the 1789 elections, the First Estate returned 303 deputies, representing 100,000 Catholic clergy; nearly 10% of French lands were owned directly by individual bishops and monasteries, in addition to tithes paid by peasants. The 1793 Constitution was suspended indefinitely in October. Primogeniture was ended both for nobles and peasants, thereby weakening the family patriarch, and led to a fall in the born rate since all children had a share in the family property. Attempts to eliminate his opponents sparked the Reign of Terror, with an estimated 16,000 killed by the time it ended in July 1794. Prior to 1789, there have been a small number of heavily censored newspapers that needed a royal licence to operate, but the Estates-General created an enormous demand for news, and over 130 newspapers appeared by the end of the year. The intention was for tenants to pay compensation for these losses but the majority refused to comply and the obligation was cancelled in 1793. George Washington and his unanimous cabinet, including Jefferson, decided that the treaty did not bind the United States to enter the war. "[150], Tocqueville emphasized, in L'Ancien Rgime et la Rvolution, the "immense central power" [151] created by the revolutionaries, and which Mirabeau had early rejoiced. The outcome of the French Revolution, which began in 1789 and lasted for more than a decade, had numerous social, economic, and political effects not just in France but also in Europe and beyond. [74] The royal family left the palace in disguise on the night of 20 June 1791; late the next day, Louis was recognised as he passed through Varennes, arrested and taken back to Paris. [212][2] The revolution represented the most significant challenge to political absolutism up to that point in history and spread democratic ideals throughout Europe and ultimately the world. [161], By February 1795, France had annexed the Austrian Netherlands, established their frontier on the left bank of the Rhine and replaced the Dutch Republic with the Batavian Republic, a satellite state. '[42], The short-lived unity enforced on the Assembly by a common threat quickly dissipated. Backed by the Commune and elements of the National Guard, on 31 May they attempted to seize power in a coup. Slaves initiated the rebellion in 1791 and by 1803 they had succeeded in ending not just slavery but French control over the colony. Harvest taxes were ended, such as the tithe and seigneurial dues, much to the relief of the peasants. At the end of July, the Convention set price controls over a wide range of goods, with the death penalty for hoarders, and on 9 September 'revolutionary groups' were established to enforce them. De Lisle was instructed to 'produce a hymn which conveys to the soul of the people the enthusiasm which it (the music) suggests. Historian Reynald Secher claims that as many as 117,000 died between 1793 and 1796. [88], Bernave's inability to build a consensus in the Assembly resulted in the appointment of a new government, chiefly composed of Brissotins. [208] Under the Ancien Rgime, medical assistance for the rural poor was often provided by nuns, acting as nurses but also physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries; the Revolution abolished most of these orders without replacing organised nursing support. Led by the revolutionary Franois-Nol Babeuf, their demands included the implementation of the 1793 Constitution and a more equitable distribution of wealth. Austria was at war with the Ottomans, as were the Russians, while both were negotiating with Prussia over partitioning Poland. Most lasted only a matter of weeks but they became the main communication medium, combined with the very large pamphlet literature. The British take Charleston, S.C., capture a large patriot army, and deal the rebels one of their worst defeats of the war. The Council of 500 was responsible for drafting legislation, which was reviewed and approved by the Council of Ancients, an upper house containing 250 men over the age of 40. The extent of the brutal repression that followed has been debated by French historians since the mid-19th century. Philosophically and politically, Britain was in debate over the rights and wrongs of revolution, in the abstract and in practicalities. Overall, the Revolution did not greatly change the French business system, and probably helped freeze in place the horizons of the small business owner. The Reign of Terror was the most violent phase of the French Revolution, a year-long period between the summers of 1793 and 1794. It was not until February 1794 that they passed a decree to put an end to it. Napoleon as emperor set up a constitutional system (although he remained in full control), and the restored Bourbons were forced to go along with one. Traditional views of the French Revolution often attribute the financial crisis to the costs of the 17781783 Anglo-French War, but modern economic studies show this is only a partial explanation. When the Constituent Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August 1789, delegates representing the colonial landowners successfully argued that the principles should not apply in the colonies as they would bring economic ruin and disrupt trade. However, radicals led by Jacques Pierre Brissot prepared a petition demanding his deposition, and on 17 July, an immense crowd gathered in the Champ de Mars to sign. [195], On 20 June 1792 a number of armed women took part in a procession that "passed through the halls of the Legislative Assembly, into the Tuileries Garden, and then through the King's residence. [214] Some modern historians argue the concept of the nation state was a direct consequence of the revolution. Those arrested in the provinces were now sent to Paris for judgement; from March to July, executions in Paris increased from five to twenty-six a day. Since this meant the legitimacy of deputies derived from the Estates-General, they would have to continue sitting as one body. Cockades with various colour schemes were used during the storming of the Bastille on 14 July. To change the laws, the king called a representative body known as the Estates General in 1788. [56] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, considered a philosophical founder of the revolution,[57][58][59][60] wrote it was "manifestly contrary to the law of nature that a handful of people should gorge themselves with superfluities while the hungry multitude goes in want of necessities. Organised women were permanently shut out of the French Revolution after 30 October 1793. The underlying causes of the French Revolution are usually attributed to the Ancien Rgime's failure to manage social and economic inequality. [33], The Estates-General convened in the Menus-Plaisirs du Roi on 5 May 1789, near the Palace of Versailles rather than in Paris; the choice of location was interpreted as an attempt to control their debates. When most people hear the words ''French Revolution,'' they think of the events of the late 18th century, the guillotine, and figures like Marie Antoinette. In rural areas, wild rumours and paranoia resulted in the formation of militia and an agrarian insurrection known as la Grande Peur. French Revolution - The National Archives Resistance was strong in every sector, as Belgian nationalism emerged to oppose French rule. [260][261] From 1815, narrative histories dominated, often based on first-hand experience of the revolutionary years. Led by de Brienne, a former archbishop of Toulouse,[a] the council also refused to approve new taxes, arguing this could only be done by the Estates. [23], The Estates-General was divided into three parts: the First for members of the clergy; Second for the nobility; and Third for the "commons". [102] Ten members of the commission and another twenty-nine members of the Girondin faction were arrested, and on 10 June, the Montagnards took over the Committee of Public Safety. [142] The elections of May 1797 resulted in significant gains for the right, with Royalists Jean-Charles Pichegru elected President of the Council of 500, and Barthlemy appointed a Director. [36], In an attempt to prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the Salle des tats closed down, claiming it needed to be prepared for a royal speech. There is no evidence of a negative effect of French invasion. [c] Robespierre saw their dispute as de-stabilising the regime, and, as a deist, objected to the anti-religious policies advocated by the atheist Hbert, who was arrested and executed on 24 March with 19 of his colleagues, including Carrier. [87] Ironically, Marie Antoinette headed a faction within the court that also favoured war, seeing it as a way to win control of the military, and restore royal authority. When presented to the legislative committee on 11 July, it was rejected by pragmatists such as Jean Joseph Mounier, President of the Assembly, who feared creating expectations that could not be satisfied. After the abdication of Napoleon III in 1871, the monarchists probably had a voting majority, but they were so factionalised they could not agree on who should be king, and instead the French Third Republic was launched with a deep commitment to upholding the ideals of the Revolution. The Spanish supported insurgent slaves, led by Jean-Franois Papillon and Georges Biassou, in the north of Saint-Domingue. August 8: The royal treasury is declared empty, and the Parliament of Paris refuses to reform the tax system or loan the Crown more money. [53], When the National Guard arrived later that evening, Lafayette persuaded Louis that the safety of his family required their relocation to Paris. One of the first of these "pamphlets" into print was A Vindication of the Rights of Men by Mary Wollstonecraft (better known for her later treatise, sometimes described as the first feminist text, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman); Wollstonecraft's title was echoed by Thomas Paine's Rights of Man, published a few months later. The assignats were withdrawn in 1796 but inflation continued until the introduction of the gold-based Franc germinal in 1803. [155], In late 1791, factions within the Assembly came to see war as a way to unite the country and secure the Revolution by eliminating hostile forces on its borders and establishing its "natural frontiers". [94] A response to the capture of Longwy and Verdun by Prussia, the perpetrators were largely National Guard members and fdrs on their way to the front. The French Revolution Though the queen had supported Jacques Necker 's return to power at the end of August 1788 and had approved of the concession of double representation to the Third Estate, her unpopularity was at its height when the Estates-General convened at Versailles in May 1789. [256] This made it increasingly difficult to justify the withholding of electoral rights, with the British Home Secretary William Grenville remarking it was difficult to deny "to so large a body of British Subjects, the benefits of the British Constitution". The French Revolution | History Cooperative [255], Coverage of the Revolution in the then Province of Quebec took place against the background of an ongoing campaign for constitutional reform by Loyalist emigrants from the United States. Nevertheless, as a potent symbol of the Ancien Rgime, its destruction was viewed as a triumph and Bastille Day is still celebrated every year. The first conscription measure or leve en masse on 24 February sparked riots in Paris and other regional centres. Messages of support poured in from Paris and other cities; by 27 June, they had been joined by the majority of the First Estate, plus forty-seven members of the Second, and Louis backed down. [67] This stiffened popular resistance against state interference, especially in traditionally Catholic areas such as Normandy, Brittany and the Vende, where only a few priests took the oath and the civilian population turned against the revolution. It acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching on the capital. After the collapse of the First French Empire in 1815, the French public lost many of the rights and privileges earned since the revolution, but remembered the participatory politics that characterised the period. [75], Despite calls to replace the monarchy with a republic, Louis retained his position but was generally regarded with acute suspicion and forced to swear allegiance to the constitution. How long did the French Revolution last? He was executed on 28 July with 19 colleagues, including Saint-Just and Georges Couthon, followed by 83 members of the Commune. When the Gallic War ended (between 58 BCE and 51 BCE), territories located south of the Rhine became Roman provinces. On 29 November, the Assembly passed a decree giving refractory clergy eight days to comply, or face charges of 'conspiracy against the nation', which even Robespierre viewed as too far, too soon. As the royalists and their British and Spanish supporters were also offering freedom for slaves willing to fight for their cause, the commissioners outbid them by abolishing slavery in the north in August, and throughout the colony in October. Despite this, the constitutions of 1791 and 1793 denied them political rights and democratic citizenship. These migrs funded reactionary forces within France and urged foreign monarchs to back a counter-revolution. [226] However, debate continues into the present over the role of religion in the public sphere and related issues such as church-controlled schools. Emboldened by this success, in February 1793 France declared war on the Dutch Republic, Spain and Britain, beginning the War of the First Coalition. Reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out agrarian reforms that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant freeholders. The typical businessman owned a small store, mill or shop, with family help and a few paid employees; large-scale industry was less common than in other industrialising nations. [154] They remain little addressed by most historians. [45] Over 25% of French farmland was subject to feudal dues, which provided most of the income for large landowners; these were now cancelled, along with tithes due to the church. This significantly reduced the yield from those that were approved and as a result, France struggled to service its debt despite being larger and wealthier than Britain. The French Revolution As French soldiers returned home from the Seven Years' War, they came home to a nearly bankrupt monarchical regime. At one end of the political spectrum, reactionaries like Cazals and Maury denounced the Revolution in all its forms, with extremists like Maximilien Robespierre at the other. [122], There are various interpretations of the Terror and the violence with which it was conducted; Marxist historian Albert Soboul saw it as essential to defend the Revolution from external and internal threats. The remaining deputies from the other two Estates were invited to join, but the Assembly made it clear they intended to legislate with or without their support. The first concerned migrs; between October and November, the Assembly approved measures confiscating their property and threatening them with the death penalty. Melzer, Sara E., and Leslie W. Rabine, eds. Since the Council of 500 controlled legislation and finance, they could paralyse government at will, and as the Directors had no power to call new elections, the only way to break a deadlock was to rule by decree or use force. Much of the initiative came from well-organised liberals who directed political change in the first half of the 19th century. [62] The church was the largest individual landowner in France, controlling nearly 10% of all estates and levied tithes, effectively a 10% tax on income, collected from peasant farmers in the form of crops. When the parlements refused to collect them, Calonne persuaded Louis to summon the Assembly of Notables, an advisory council dominated by the upper nobility. [16] Following partial default in 1770, within five years the budget had been balanced thanks to reforms instituted by Turgot, the Controller-General of Finances. During the Revolutionary Wars, the French invaded and occupied the region between 1794 and 1814, a time known as the French period. Like the clergy, this was not a uniform body, and was divided into the noblesse d'pe, or traditional aristocracy, and the noblesse de robe. [168] In 1789-90, a delegation of free coloureds, led by Vincent Og and Julien Raimond, unsuccessfully lobbied the Assembly to end discrimination against free coloureds. [78], Based on a motion proposed by Robespierre, existing deputies were barred from elections held in early September for the French Legislative Assembly. These policies were promoted by the atheist Hbert and opposed by the deist Robespierre, who denounced the campaign and replaced the Cult of Reason with the Cult of the Supreme Being. They also insisted on enforcing the rule that only those who owned land could sit as deputies for the Second Estate, and thus excluded the immensely popular Comte de Mirabeau. The election results were cancelled, sixty-three leading royalists deported to French Guiana and new laws passed against migrs, Royalists and ultra-Jacobins. [269][271], Alfred Cobban challenged Jacobin-Marxist social and economic explanations of the revolution in two important works, The Myth of the French Revolution (1955) and Social Interpretation of the French Revolution (1964). Fist fights broke out in the streets between the two factions of women. By April 1796, over 500,000 Parisians were reportedly in need of relief, resulting in the May insurrection known as the Conspiracy of the Equals. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. On this basis, a new committee convened to finalise its terms; the most controversial element was the distinction between 'active citizens' who held political rights, defined as French males over the age of 25, who paid direct taxes equal to three days' labour, and 'passive citizens', who were restricted to 'civil rights'. On 17 August, the Convention voted a second leve en masse; despite initial problems in equipping and supplying such large numbers, by mid-October Republican forces had re-taken Lyon, Marseilles and Bordeaux, while defeating Coalition armies at Hondschoote and Wattignies.